The red ocher culture of the upper Great Lakes and adjacent areas

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Volume 36 March 27, 1962 No. 11

THE RED OCHER CULTURE

OF THE

UPPER GREAT LAKES AND ADJACENT AREAS

Robert E. Ritzenthaler

Curator of Anthropology, Milwaukee Public Museum
AND

George I. Quimby

Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology
Chicago Natural History Museum

Within the Upper Great Lakes and adjacent regions the Late
Archaic and Early Woodland complex known as "Red Ocher" occurs
sporadically. The bearers of this culture sprinkled powdered red
ocher over the bodies of their deceased after placing them in graves.
The relatively few sites and the considerable variation of the traits
from site to site has made this one of the more elusive of the cultural
complexes. It is found particularly in Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois,
Iowa, Indiana, and Ohio.

It is our purpose to define tentatively the Red Ocher culture
by the analysis of information from all site reports that have come
to our attention, and to plot its distribution. We began our survey
of this culture in 1957, using published accounts and museum collec-
tions. Our inventory of sites that we consider to be Red Ocher is
only partially complete but we believe it to be adequate for our
purposes.

The term "Red Ocher" was first used in 1937 by Cole and Deuel
(1937, p. 202) and a preliminary description of the complex was
made in terms of data from three sites in central Illinois (F°ll,
lower component of F°14, and F°563). Some additional sites have
since been recognized as Red Ocher because of their cultural sim-
ilarity to those described by Cole and Deuel. However, there has
not been thus far any broad synthesis of the existing information
on the Red Ocher culture and it is often easily confused with its

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 62-15263
No. 949 243

244 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

twin (fraternal, not identical), the Glacial Kame culture. Our own
uncertainty as to what constituted the Red Ocher culture led us
to make this study.

The Red Ocher culture consists of a series of overlapping associ-
ations of marginal traits based on a core of nuclear traits that include
the following: flexed burials in pits on ridges of sand, gravel, or loess;
powdered red ocher in grave; "turkey-tail" blades of chipped blue-
gray flint; rather large lanceolate ceremonial knives of whitish flint;
and caches of ovate-trianguloid points.

In our survey of information dealing with the Red Ocher complex
we listed any site that we suspected might belong to this complex.
Some of these sites were subsequently removed from the list because
analysis of their traits showed they were not Red Ocher. One diffi-
culty has been the fact that red ocher was spread on burials in
numerous other cultures; and although the use of red ocher in graves
achieved its first major popularity in the time of the Red Ocher
culture, this trait persisted down to the period of European contact
with native American cultures. On the other hand, there are some
Red Ocher sites that did not have red ocher present in burials yet
produced other nuclear traits indicative of the Red Ocher culture.

Another difficulty that we encountered was that many of the
published accounts, particularly those written between 1877 and
1937, contained inadequate descriptions of artifacts; the circum-
stances of the finds were also often omitted or not detailed. Most
of the finds were the accidental discoveries of farmers, contractors,
and collectors, and although some artifacts reached museums where
they can be re-examined today, much of this material can no longer
be traced.

THE CULTURAL ASSEMBLAGE OF RED OCHER

We have eliminated Adena from our consideration of Red Ocher
as a distinct assemblage. Although Red Ocher traits may appear
occasionally in Early Adena we believe this to be the result of diffu-
sion from Red Ocher to Early Adena or possibly the result of some
Red Ocher ancestry in Adena. In any event we do not consider
Adena a part of our problem at this time. Glacial Kame, which
easily can be confused with Red Ocher, we shall consider presently.

A comparison of the traits exhibited in the sites presented in our
sample suggests that a concept of the Red Ocher cultural assemblage
must be based on a series of traits that overlap variably from one
manifestation to another (see table, pp 266-271). After preliminary

4

*1

245

246 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

Fig. 114. Large ceremonial blades from Carey site, Wisconsin. Blade at left
14 inches long.

analysis of our trait lists it seemed useful to divide Red Ocher
traits into two categories — nuclear and peripheral. By "nuclear"
we mean the basic or core traits that turn up consistently. They
are always or nearly always present. An example is the use of
red ocher in the burial procedure.

In addition to the nuclear traits there are peripheral or fringe
traits that sporadically occur in association with the nuclear traits.
Birdstones seem to be an example. Peripheral traits are thus either
of rare occurrence or less consistent in appearance than the nuclear.

Nuclear Traits

1. Use of a layer of red ocher (hematite) to cover grave. This
often seeps down to stain the bone or artifacts or both.

2. Burials in flexed position, in pits, in sand. While several
cremations and several bundle burials have been reported,
the usual burial method is flexure.

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 247

The presence of large (some are 19 inches in length), "cere-
monial," whitish-flint blades, ellipsoidal in shape with a taper
toward a truncated base (figs. 113 and 114). Primary flaking
with secondary retouching. Solutrean in feel. Some are killed.

"Turkey-tail" blades of hornstone, a bluish-gray chert from
southern Indiana. Collector's term based on resemblance of
halting end to the tail of a dressed turkey. Side-notched,
ellipsoidal shape. Primary and secondary chipping. Fine
workmanship. Usually occur in small caches (fig. 116). A
similar type except for a stemmed tang also occurs and we
have termed it the modified turkey-tail (fig. 116, center).

Small, unnotched, ovate-trianguloid chert knives or points.
Secondary retouching. Somewhat crude. Majority are asym-
metrical, suggesting usage as knife or scraper (figs. 115 and
123). Some may be blanks for stemmed or notched points.
Occur in large caches (115 at Andrews site).

;r

Fig. 115. Ovate-trianguloid points from Thiensville site, Wisconsin. Length,
1 to 1 % inches.

Fig. 116. Turkey-tail blades, top and bottom; modified turkey-tail blade in
center. Dyer site, Indiana. Blade at top 5}4 inches long.

248

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 249

Fig. 117. Turkey-tail blade (bottom) and modified turkey-tail blade from
Thiensville site, Wisconsin. Blade at bottom 8 inches long.

6. Presence of worked copper, usually thick rolled or thinner
tubular beads (fig. 118) but occasionally awls, celts, knives
(fig. 119) or points.

7. Tubular marine shell beads.

There are three distinctive nuclear traits which we consider to
be diagnostic of Red Ocher and which occur in no other cultural
assemblages with which we have made comparisons. The three
traits are the large ceremonial blades (figs. 113 and 114), the ovate-
trianguloid knives (fig. 115), and the turkey-tails (figs. 116 and 117).

Peripheral Traits

The following elements are occasionally found in association with
the nuclear traits:

1. Interment in mounds.

2. Use of cremation or bundle reburial method of interment.

3. Presence of un worked galena cubes.

4. Circular or ovate shell gorgets.

5. Birdstones (fig. 121).

250

FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

Fig. 118. Copper beads from Dyer site, Indiana.

6. Bar amulets (fig. 122).

7. Three hole rectanguloid gorgets (fig. 123, center).

8. Tube pipes.

9. Grooved axes.

10. Celts.

11. Early Woodland pottery.

Thus Red Ocher may be described as a culture revealed solely
through caches and a burial complex in which a number of con-
sistent interment practices appear, accompanied by a comparatively
small assemblage of artifacts, three of which appear to be diagnostic.

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 251

Fig. 119.
inches long.

Copper awl and copper celts from Dyer site, Indiana. Awl 4%

The sites in our sample are distributed from eastern Iowa to
central Ohio and from southern Ohio to the Manitoulin District of
Ontario. Most of the sites, however, seem to be in southeastern
Wisconsin, northern Illinois, northern Indiana, and the southern
half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. In much of this area
Red Ocher is a co-occupant with Glacial Kame.

If, as now seems probable, the final phase of Old Copper merges
into both Red Ocher and Glacial Kame, then there is to be expected

Fig. 120. Beads of marine shell from Thiensville site, Wisconsin.

Fig. 121. Birdstone 3% inches long, made of slate; from Carey site, Wis-
consin.

252

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 253

a point at which the remnants of Old Copper and its budding off-
springs, Red Ocher and Glacial Kame, are inextricably mixed. This
might be the case at the Reigh site in Wisconsin, at which the
first excavations produced among other things a sandal-sole gorget,

Fig. 122. Bar amulet 6% inches long, made of slate; from Dyer site, Indiana.

shell beads, copper implements, and burial practices suggestive of
Glacial Kame (Baerreis et al., 1954, p. 34). Subsequent finds at this
site, however, included copper crescents, copper socket-tanged points,
and copper spuds which thus far have occurred only in "pure"
Old Copper sites. The sandal-sole gorget was not directly associated
with Old Copper artifacts, however, and it is possible that two com-
ponents exist at this site.

To summarize our position: "If the Glacial Kame and Red Ocher
peoples were not actually physical and cultural descendants of the
Old Copper folk, they were certainly followers of the basic cultural
traditions." (Ritzenthaler, 1957, pp. 278-279.)

RED OCHER AND GLACIAL KAME

Red Ocher culture is very similar to Glacial Kame culture (cf.
Cunningham, 1948) and they overlap spatially as well as temporally.
In southern Michigan, northern Illinois, parts of Ohio, and northern
Indiana, Red Ocher and Glacial Kame sites exist in the same areas.
For instance, there is in Lake County, northern Illinois, a Glacial
Kame site within a few miles of a Red Ocher site. This Glacial
Kame site is near Half Day in the Des Plaines Valley. In the summer
of 1959 commercial stripping operations uncovered burials in a deep
gravel deposit. The information regarding them was obtained through
the interest and observations of Mr. James R. Getz, who conducted
archaeological salvage operations at this site.

In a grave or graves dug into the gravel were the skeletons of
four adults and two children covered with powdered red ocher.

^9 6 ^k B ^ts^

Fig. 123. Red Ocher artifacts from Thiensville site, Wisconsin. The turkey-
tail blade, bottom row, center, is 8 inches long.

254

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 255

The skeletons were flexed. Accompanying the dead were rolled copper
beads and two gorgets made of marine shell, each about 6 inches
long and shaped like the sole of a sandal, with 3 perforations along
the midline. In this context the sandal-sole gorget of shell is the

Fig. 124. Flint point \M inches long;
from Dyer site, Indiana.

trait that identifies the site as Glacial Kame. If instead of the
sandal-sole gorgets there had been one or more turkey-tail blades,
we would have assigned this site to the Red Ocher.

This example illustrates the very close relationship of Early Red
Ocher and Glacial Kame. As we said earlier, they are like fraternal
twins. Most of the traits we have called marginal can occur in
either Red Ocher or Glacial Kame. Assemblages of traits from these
two cultures are much alike. However, we have not so far found
any site of the two that contains either the turkey-tail blades or
the large lanceolate ceremonial knife in association with the sandal-
sole gorget. Thus we have concluded that if one finds a flexed burial
in a gravel pit accompanied by red ocher, copper and shell beads,
birdstones, copper axes and awls, and sandal-sole gorgets of shell,
the culture is Glacial Kame. If, on the other hand, there are no
sandal-sole gorgets, but there are turkey-tail blades or large cere-
monial leaf-shaped blades, or perhaps a cache of ovate-trianguloid
points, the culture is Red Ocher.

If, in the future, sites are found in which sandal-sole gorgets
and the diagnostic Red Ocher traits are in direct association, then

256 FIELD IANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

we shall be forced to conclude that Red Ocher and Glacial Kame
were identical; but until that time we have two closely related but
distinguishable cultures manifested primarily by their burial customs.

There seem to be some Late Archaic cultures other than Glacial
Kame that resemble Red Ocher culture and probably are related
to it. We picked up some evidence of these in our preliminary
inventories while we were searching for Red Ocher traits. We are
not, however, prepared to deal with these cultures at the present
time, and have eliminated them from the sample presented in this
paper.

TEMPORAL POSITION OF RED OCHER

There are several ways to assess the age of the Red Ocher culture :
geological relationships, archaeological stratigraphy, and radiocarbon
dating.

Quimby (1958) pointed out that a typical Red Ocher site in
Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, was on the lakeward side of and
below the level of the fossil beach marking the Algoma stage of the
Upper Great Lakes and therefore that this site should be later than
the Algoma beach. That the site could have been established earlier
than the Algoma beach seemed very unlikely because in such an
instance the site would also have to have been older than the Nip-
issing stage of lake levels that were older and higher than Algoma.
Although deep burials such as are customary in Red Ocher probably
could have survived flooding on this shallow shoreline, it was felt
that a pre-Nipissing date was too old. The Nipissing stage began
at about 3000 B.C. (cf. Quimby, 1960b, pp. 16 and 25-26), and if
Red Ocher were pre-Nipissing, it would be older than 3000 B.C.
Since by virtue of their pottery the youngest Red Ocher sites
are tied to Early Woodland horizons (ca. 500 to 100 B.C.) in the
Upper Great Lakes region it seemed unreasonable to believe that
the non-ceramic Red Ocher sites could be earlier than 3000 B.C.
Thus we abandoned the possibility of a pre-Nipissing age for Red
Ocher and concluded that Red Ocher could not be older than the
Algoma stage, which began at about 1500 B.C. (Quimby, 1960b,
pp. 17, 26).

We knew that Red Ocher culture preceded Hopewell, because
Cole and Deuel (1937, pp. 204-205) demonstrated this. Radio-
carbon dating of the 1950's suggested that Hopewell culture began
some time between 500 B.C. and 100 B.C. Thus with Red Ocher
culture bracketed between the Algoma beach and the Hopewell

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 257

culture, it should fall into a period between 1500 B.C. and 100 B.C.
This in fact it does, as we shall show by two radiocarbon datings
of Red Ocher culture.

The Andrews site, a rich Red Ocher cultural manifestation in
Saginaw County, Michigan, has been dated at 1210 B.C. plus or
minus 300 years (M-659, Crane and Griffin, 1960, p. 34). The
dating is based on human bone in association with red ocher burials,
birdstones, and a variety of copper and flint artifacts illustrative
of Red Ocher culture that were found in a sand ridge marking a
stage of the Algoma beach at this place. The cultural remains
themselves and the early date indicate that the Andrews site is
Early Red Ochre.

A Late Red Ocher site is the Sny-Magill Mound 43, in Clayton
County, Iowa, dated at 470 B.C. plus or minus 250 years (M-305)
and 540 B.C. plus or minus 250 years (M-308, Crane and Griffin
1958, p. 1099). By virtue of the cultural content and date this
Red Ocher manifestation belongs to the Early Woodland stage
and /or period.

A site which might be considered to be very late Red Ocher
is the K.B. 1 mound at Killarney Bay in the Manitoulin District
of Ontario. This mound has been dated at about 80 B.C. plus or
minus 200 years (M-428, Crane and Griffin 1959, p. 183), and from
what we know of the cultural content we judge this mound to be
late in the Early Woodland period.

In general, Late Red Ocher is characterized by the addition
of burial mounds or certain kinds of pottery or possibly tubular
pipes to various combinations of the nuclear and marginal traits
typical of Early Red Ocher. Moreover, burial mounds and pottery
are lacking in Early Red Ocher.

It is our conclusion that Early Red Ocher, which is Late Archaic,
lasted from some time between 1200 and 1500 B.C. to about 500 B.C.,
and that Late Red Ocher, which is Early Woodland, lasted from
about 500 B.C. to 100 B.C. or slightly later. South of the Upper
Great Lakes region these dates and periods may prove to be some-
what earlier. The temporal position of Red Ocher and Glacial
Kame lends credence to the thesis that these are transitional cul-
ture growths with roots in Old Copper and branches in Woodland.

The following section consists of summaries of the source materials
upon which we have depended. They include publications, museum
collections, and field work.

258 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

SITES AND FINDS IN WISCONSIN

Carey site, Milwaukee County (see Brown, 1916, pp. 73-75). —
Various commercial operations between 1904 and 1913 destroyed
a number of burials in the Carey gravel pit. The following traits
and /or artifacts were found by the workmen: Burials associated
with artifacts; red ocher in the graves; 6 ceremonial blades, leaf-
shaped, of white flint ranging in length from 8 to 14 inches (see fig.
114); 15 ovate-trianguloid cache points; intentional breakage of
blades prior to burial; 1 leaf-shaped blade of copper; 3 copper awls 5,
6, and 113^ inches long; 50 spheroidal beads of copper 34 to %
of an inch in diameter; 3 tubular beads of copper 1% to 23^ inches
long; 5 shell beads; and 2 pop-eyed birdstones of ground slate 3^
(fig. 121) and 5% inches long.

Layton Park site, Milwaukee County (see Brown, 1916, p. 39). —
In 1892, while grading, workmen found at this site six turkey-tail
blades of "blue hornstone" and a leaf-shaped ceremonial knife of
light-colored flint.

Thiensville site, Ozaukee County (see Ritzenthaler and Niehoff,
1958, pp. 115-119; Niehoff, 1959, pp. 26-27).— This site, dug in 1958,
consisted of 3 burials about 7 feet deep in a sand ridge. One burial
was in flexed position, the other two may have been. Red ocher
was abundant in the graves. Found with or near the burials were
5 turkey-tail or modified turkey-tail blades of blue hornstone (figs. 117
and 123); 1 side-notched blade of the same material (fig. 123);
1 tanged blade of hornstone; 55 ovate-trianguloid cache points
(figs. 115 and 123); 4 copper awls square in section and pointed
at each end (fig. 123); a large number of spheroidal and tubular
beads of copper; a large number of marine shell beads (fig. 120),
both disk-shaped and spheroidal; some small cubes of galena; and
a rectanguloid, 3-hole gorget of polished stone (fig. 123).

Port Washington site, Ozaukee County (see Quimby, 1957, pp. 1-3).
— The following artifacts were found with or near a burial in gravel
4 to 6 feet deep: 4 large, leaf-shaped ceremonial blades of light-
colored flint; 1 similar blade of copper; 20 ovate-trianguloid cache
points; 1 modified turkey- tail blade of hornstone; 3 stemmed points
of flint; 2 corner-notched points of flint; 1 copper celt; and 1 grooved
axe of ground stone.

Leon site, Sheboygan County (see Gerend, 1920, p. 189). — Some
time prior to 1920 there were 18 blue hornstone knives (turkey-
tails?) found with a burial in a gravel pit.

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 259

Molash Creek site, Manitowoc County (see Quimby, 1958). — In
1898 the following artifacts were found with or near a burial in
a ridge of sand: 1 leaf -shaped ceremonial blade of whitish flint;
a similar blade of copper; about 165 ovate- trianguloid cache points
of chipped stone; 4 stemmed points of flint; 1 stone bead; and 110
tubular and spheroidal beads of copper. There was evidence of red
ocher on the skeleton and on some artifacts.

Hathaway site, Manitowoc County (see Brown, 1907, p. 63; Falge,
1915, p. 149). — A cache of 14 turkey-tail blades of blue hornstone
was found in 1878 when struck by a plow.

Whitefish Bay or Mashek site, Door County (see Brown, 1907,
pp. 61-62, and 1924, p. 70; Shumacher, 1918, p. 141).— In 1905 a
flexed burial was found by workmen who were cutting a road through
a hill. With the burial were 15 turkey-tail knives of blue hornstone
and a lanceolate, stemmed blade of gray flint.

Stephensville site, Outagamie County (see Brown, 1907, p. 63, and
1930, p. 103; Fox, 1916, p. 16).— A cache of 6 turkey-tail blades of
blue hornstone ranging from 3% to 93^ inches in length was found
with 7 flint and quartzite spearpoints some time before 1907 in sec-
tion 18 of Ellington township.

Chalk Hills site, Marinette County (see Brown, 1940, p. 75). — In
1932, excavation of the undisturbed part of a burial mound on the
banks of the Menominee River produced a single bundle burial
stained with red ocher and 3 turkey-tail blades of blue hornstone.

Wolf River site, Shawano County (see Brown, 1907, p. 68). —
Some time prior to 1907 a cache of 40 ovate trianguloid points of
brownish chert, 6 turkey-tail blades of blue hornstone, and 1 socketed
copper point was found in a "pocket, 1% feet deep on the eastern
bank of Wolf River."

Wautoma site, Waushara County (see Brown, 1907, p. 61). — A
cache of 9 turkey- tail (?) blades of blue hornstone was found near
Wautoma some time prior to 1907.

Paulsen Farm site, Calumet County (see Brown, 1907, p. 61). —
About 1883, a cache of 22 turkey-tail(?) blades of blue hornstone
was found beneath the roots of a black ash stump on the Paulsen
farm.

Fond du Lac site, Fond du Lac County (see Brown, 1915, p. 179). —
A large, leaf-shaped ceremonial blade of light-colored flint 10 inches
long was found in 1891 in a gravel pit that contained burials.

260 FIELD IANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

Bartell site, Dodge County (see Brown, 1915, pi. 5 and pp. 177-
178). — In 1911, a leaf -shaped ceremonial blade 12^ inches long of
light-colored flint was found with a burial in a gravel pit on the
Bartell place near Theresa.

Boltonville site, Washington County (see Brown, 1907, p. 64). —
In 1886, a farmer near Boltonville found 4 turkey-tail blades beneath
a stump.

Pewaukee Lake site, Waukesha County (see Brown, 1907, p. 64,
and 1930, pp. 99-100). — Some time before 1907 a cache of 6 turkey-
tail blades of blue hornstone was found near the east shore of Pewau-
kee Lake.

Lisbon site, Waukesha County (see Brown, 1930, p. 100).— In or
before 1930, 3 turkey-tail blades were found with a burial in a mound
at Lisbon.

Janesville site, Rock County (see Brown, 1907, p. 64). — In 1903,
workmen found 4 turkey-tail blades between 5 and 6 inches long and
fragments of a brownish flint knife about 14 inches long at a depth
of nearly 4 feet beneath a street in Janesville.

Stoughton site, Dane County (see Brown, 1915, pp. 178-179). —
In 1884, at a depth of 4 feet beneath a street were found 2 burials;
one was accompanied by 90 copper beads and the other was asso-
ciated with 2 leaf-shaped ceremonial blades of light-colored flint
between 9 and 10 inches in length.

New Lisbon site, Juneau County (see Brown, 1907, p. 64). — In
1904, a cache of 8 turkey-tail blades of blue hornstone was found
during the cultivation of a field within the limits of New Lisbon.
Four of these blades were between 5 and 6 inches long.

SITES AND FINDS IN IOWA

Sny-Magill Mound 1$, Clayton County (see Beaubien, 1953,
pp. 57-60). — Mound 43, a component of the Red Ocher culture,
was 70 feet in diameter and 5 feet high. The mound contained 4
groups of bundle burials at least one of which might be considered
a tightly flexed burial inasmuch as many of the bones had been held
in proper anatomical order by the ligaments. This mound also con-
tained thick layers of red ocher; 2 large, leaf-shaped ceremonial
blades of light-colored, pinkish flint; 5 stemmed points (one frag-
mentary) of chipped stone; 12 spheroidal beads of copper; 1 flint
side scraper; and 26 sherds. One sherd was grit- tempered and cord-
marked; the others were also grit-tempered, but were decorated with

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 261

a combination of rocker stamp and twisted cord impressions forming
bands of geometric design.

Harpers Ferry site, Allamakee County (see Beaubien, 1953, p. 60).
— In a mound at Harpers Ferry a red ocher floor 30 feet in diameter
was associated with bundle burials; 1 leaf -shaped ceremonial blade
of flint; 125 spheroidal beads of copper; 1 bar amulet ("long copper
bar") of copper; and notched or stemmed flint projectile points.

SITES AND FINDS IN ILLINOIS

Beake site, Lake County (Quimby notes).— About 1954, in the
course of gravel pit operations near the town of Grayslake, a burial
was found in a grave pit dug into the gravel. With this burial were
quantities of powdered red ocher; at least 17 turkey- tail blades of
blue hornstone (blue-gray flint) ; and a large, leaf-shaped ceremonial
knife of whitish flint that probably had been broken at time of burial.

Morton site F°ll, Fulton County (see Cole and Deuel, 1937,
pp. 65-69). — The site is a low, dome-shaped burial mound on a
ridge of yellow loess. The mound apparently was produced by bring-
ing in earth to cover up bodies successively laid on the ground. The
lowermost burials appear to have been placed in pits that had been
dug in the yellow loess.

There were flexed and semiflexed burials, disarticulated skeletons
that may have been bundle burials, and cremations. Some burials
were accompanied by caches, chiefly of lanceolate blades of chipped
flint. Burials and /or caches had been sprinkled with powdered red
ocher in nine instances (profusely in three) and seven were without
red ocher.

In addition to ovate-trianguloid cache points there were stemmed
points, side-notched points, and a turkey-tail blade of chipped flint;
a lanceolate blade with stem; and large, expanded base drills, scrap-
ers, cores, and spauls of chipped flint.

Ground stone objects consisted of two small celts 8 and 9.4 cm.
long and rectangular in section. There were also cuboids of galena
and metallic hematite (red ocher) showing facets as if ground for
paint.

Artifacts of copper were a rectanguloid plaque with longer sides
concave; an awl or pin, square in section; and 16 tubular beads.

Shell objects included 1 pear-shaped, two-hole gorget that had
been broken and mended, 2 circular gorgets, and 12 beads fashioned
by boring holes in the apexes of Marginella shells.

262 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

Pottery was limited to 4 sherds of thick, grit-tempered ware with
plain exterior, one of which had a basketry or textile impression on
the interior.

Animal remains were those of deer, elk, and dog. Objects of
bone were a cut section of antler, an awl made from a deer meta-
podial bone and a split metapodial bone of an elk.

Morton site F°H., Fulton County (see Cole and Deuel, 1937,
pp. 87, 89-90). — The burials classed as Red Ocher lay on undis-
turbed yellow loess. Usually they were badly disintegrated and in
five out of seven cases were covered with red ocher. Such interments
were apparently made in a slight, natural elevation. The grass and
top soil were removed and the body laid on the undisturbed loess.
The earth piled back over the bodies formed a low mound.

Three of the burials were fully flexed, three were too fragmentary
to indicate position, and one was disarticulated or disturbed. One
burial was without any grave goods and three burials had a fair
amount of grave goods.

Artifacts from this site are 1 turkey-tail blade of chipped flint,
3 ovate- trianguloid points of chipped flint, a fragment of copper, a
cuboid of galena, at least 7 tubular and cylindrical beads of copper,
a globular bead of shell, 2 circular shell pendants, a crescentic orna-
ment of shell, and a copper pin or awl that is square in section.

Morse site, Fulton County (see Morse, 1959, pp. 194-200). — The
excavated portion of this site consisted of 18 burials, less than 20
per cent of which had associated grave goods. The skeletons were
semi-flexed or tightly flexed in pits in a natural ridge of loess over
which one or possibly two low conjoined mounds had been erected.
Most of the skeletons had red ocher with them. Artifacts found
here include about 70 ovate- trianguloid cache points; 4 or more
straight-stemmed points of chipped flint; some heavy spheroidal and
tubular beads of copper; 6 barrel-shaped beads of stone; 1 copper
awl, square in section; some disk-shaped beads of shell; and a conch
shell container.

Banner site, Fulton County (see Morse, 1959, p. 201; Wray, 1937).
—Fifteen flexed burials covered with red ocher were found in a
mound. Artifacts from this mound were 4 turkey- tail blades of
dark-colored flint; a 9-inch (leaf-shaped ceremonial) knife of pink
flint; 27 spheroidal copper beads; 4 beads of marine shell; 1 notched
projectile point; 1 leaf-shaped blade of dark flint; 1 shell spoon;
1 piece of galena; and 1 rim sherd of thick grit-tempered pottery
(Marion Thick).

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 263
SITES AND FINDS IN INDIANA

Kankakee River site, Lake County (see Faulkner, in press). — In
1919, along the dredged bank of the Kankakee River, there was
found a cache of 20 lanceolate blades many of which had the classic
turkey-tail form. They ranged from 2J/£ to 6J4 inches in length and
were made of bluish gray flint.

Oak Grove site, Lake County (see Faulkner, in press). — In 1907,
during grading operations in a sand hill in West Creek Township,
a burial was found, accompanied by copper artifacts, red ocher on
blades, 24 turkey-tail and modified turkey-tail blades of blue-gray
flint, 3 corner-notched blades of light-colored flint, and 4 leaf-shaped
ceremonial blades of whitish flint. With this burial or nearby were
46 ovate-trianguloid flint cache points stained with red ocher.

Dyer site, Lake County (see Quimby, 1960a, p. 5). — This site,
excavated in 1915 by Mr. Philip C. Schupp, consisted of a burial in
a deep grave pit in a sand ridge. Within the grave was the flexed
skeleton of an adult accompanied by burial goods and profuse quan-
tities of powdered red ocher. With the skeleton were 2 turkey-tail
blades of dark blue-gray flint (blue hornstone), one 5 inches long,
the other 5^ inches long (fig. 116); 1 modified turkey-tail blade of
blue-gray flint 4)/£ inches long (fig. 116); 1 large, leaf-shaped ceremo-
nial blade of white flint about 19 inches long (fig. 113); 45 thick
spheroidal beads of copper (fig. 118); 1 copper awl with square sec-
tion 4?<4 inches long (fig. 119); 3 copper celts 4)4 to 5% inches long
(fig. 119); 1 bar amulet of ground slate 6% inches long (fig. 122);
and 1 small flint point with double side notches (fig. 124).

Brandywine Creek site, Hancock County (see Townsend, 1959,
pp. 190-192). — In 1911 there was found at this site a cache consist-
ing of 6 large turkey- tail blades; 1 small bust- type birdstone of white
quartzite; and 1 stone celt. The turkey- tail blades and birdstone
were liberally stained with red ocher. Four of the blades were broken
as if heat shattered.

Mound site Sh 73, Shelby County (see Dragoo, 1951, p. 29). — A
small mound excavated around 1895 contained a burial and associ-
ated artifacts including 6 turkey- tail blades 8 inches long; 1 birdstone
of ground and polished slate; and some sherds of grit- tempered, cord-
marked pottery.

Hasler site, Greene County (see Townsend, 1959, pp. 192-194). —
This site was discovered during plowing of a low knoll in 1948. With
a burial in the center of the knoll were found a ball of red ocher and

264 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

a bust-type birdstone of black and white gneiss. Nearby were found

2 rectanguloid celts of gabbro; a cache of 21 large turkey- tail blades
coated with red ocher; and a cache of 5 smaller turkey-tail blades
also covered with red ocher.

Site Mr-215, Marshall County (see Faulkner, 1960, pp. 36-38).—
In 1947, more than 300 whole and broken ovate-trianguloid cache
points were found in a sand knoll on a farm in Green Township.

Peterson site, Pulaski County (see Faulkner, 1960, pp. 42-45). —
Found with a burial in a sand knoll were 7 large, modified turkey-
tail blades of bluish-gray flint (blue hornstone); 320 ovate-triangu-
loid cache points; and about 100 thick, tubular beads of copper.

SITES AND FINDS IN OHIO

Spetnagle site, Ross County (see Anonymous, 1923, pp. 639-640). —
In excavating the basement for a dwelling in Chillicothe a cache of
more than 200 turkey-tail and modified turkey-tail blades was un-
earthed by a horse and scraper. These blades ranged in length from

3 inches to 103^ inches and were made of blue-gray flint. The ma-
jority of the blades were true turkey-tails.

Kick site, Holmes County (see Case, 1877, p. 267). — In the sum-
mer of 1870, a cache of 96 ovate-trianguloid points stained with red
ocher was found in gravel four feet beneath the surface of a pond-
like depression on a farm in Washington Township.

SITES AND FINDS IN MICHIGAN

Moccasin Bluff- A site, Berrien County (see Hills, 1898, p. 77). —
In 1896-97, a flexed burial and a cache of stone artifacts were found
at Moccasin Bluff, one mile north of Buchanan. The cache con-
tained 7 turkey-tail blades; 11 leaf-shaped blanks that could be made
into turkey-tails merely by notching them; and 1 small axe. The
blades and blanks were of light blue flint and 12 of the 18 had yel-
low bases.

Kimmel site, Berrien County (see Papworth, 1958, pp. 51-56). —
This site near Berrien Springs on a gravelly terrace of the St. Joseph
River consisted of a cache and a burial, both of which had been dis-
turbed in the course of excavation by machinery. The cache con-
tained 4 crude turkey-tail blades that seem to have been broken
prior to deposition and at least 450 ovate-trianguloid cache points.
The burial, an adult in a shallow pit, was associated with 33 short,

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 265

tubular beads of copper; 1 ovate-oblong gorget of copper with 2 holes;
and 1 broken crescent-shaped object of copper.

Frazier site, Saginaw County (see Smith, 1901, pp. 22-24). —
Some time prior to 1901, a cache consisting of more than 300 pieces
was found about a foot beneath the surface in sand on the south side
of the Tittabawassee River, about 5 miles upstream from Saginaw.
The cache consisted of large turkey-tail blades about 8 inches long,
made of dark concretionary chert; small turkey-tail blades about
3 inches long, of dark concretionary chert, the center black and hard,
the tips grading off by successive rings to a comparatively soft yel-
lowish chert; ovate- trianguloid cache points of yellow chert; and a
few of the latter made into points with wide, square stems.

Andrews site, Saginaw County (see Smith, 1901, pp. 21-22; Town-
send, 1959, pp. 219-225; Griffin, oral communication; Greenman,
oral communication; and Papworth, oral communication). — This
site is on a sandy ridge, a former strandline of the Algoma stage in
the Lake Huron basin. Grave pits contained flexed burials, bundle
burials, and cremations, powdered red ocher, and burial goods. Arti-
facts include turkey-tail blades of dark-colored flint; 115 ovate-tri-
anguloid cache points; side-notched and square-stemmed points of
chipped flint; copper celts; stone celts; heavy awls of copper, square
in section; smaller copper awls and needles; cylindrical and spheroidal
beads of copper; 1 copper harpoon point with multiple barbs on one
side only; and 4 birdstones. A detailed report on the recent exca-
vations at this site is being prepared by the University of Michigan.

HaUiner site, Alpena County (oral communication from Mr.
Gerald Haltiner). — At a site 7 miles north of Alpena, 63 ovate-
trianguloid points were found in a cache. These points ranged in
length from 13^ to 3 inches; some were stained with red ocher.

SITES AND FINDS IN ONTARIO

Killarney Bay Mound, Manitoulin District (see Greenman, 1953,
p. 177; 1954, p. 4, and oral communication). — Burials found in pits
beneath a burial mound on a beach ridge 28 feet above the level of
Lake Huron were associated with various items that include the fol-
lowing: more than 100 "coarse cache blades" stained with red ocher;
1 small turkey-tail blade; copper beads; large copper awls, square in
section; narrow copper celts; 2 tubular pipes of stone; 1 large flint
blade oval at each end; several large, corner-notched blades of flint;
and some sherds of grit-tempered pottery.

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272 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Miss Lillian A. Ross, Associate Editor of Scien-
tific Publications, for her editorial work in our behalf. We also wish
to thank Dr. James B. Griffin, Dr. Emerson F. Greenman, Dr. Mark
Papworth, and Dr. Lewis Binford for providing us with information
about sites they had excavated. Mr. Mark Ritter, while a student
at the University of Wisconsin, helped us survey published sources
of information.

The photographs used to illustrate this paper are from Milwaukee
Public Museum and Chicago Natural History Museum. Figures
113, 116, 118, 119, 122, and 124 are Chicago Natural History Mu-
seum photographs, and figures 114, 115, 117, 120, 121, and 123 are
Milwaukee Public Museum photographs.

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 273

REFERENCES

Anonymous

1923. The Spetnagle cache of flint spear points. Ohio Archaeological and His-
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1951. A Red Ocher site in Peoria County? Illinois State Archaeological Society,
n.s., vol. 1, p. 118.

Baerreis, David A., Daifuku, Hiroshi, and Lundsted, James E.

1954. The burial complex of the Reigh site, Winnebago County, Wisconsin.
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Beaubien, Paul L.

1953. Cultural variation within two Woodland Mound groups of northeastern
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Brown, Charles E.

1907. The implement caches of the Wisconsin Indians. The Wisconsin Arche-
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1915. Ceremonial knives. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 176-
181.

1916. Archaeological history of Milwaukee County. The Wisconsin Archeolo-
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1924. Indian gravel pit burials in Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist,
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1930. "Turkey-tail" points. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 99-
103.

1940. Red paint with Wisconsin burials. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 21,
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Case, H. B.

1877. Flint implements in Holmes County, Ohio. Annual Report of the Smith-
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Cole, Fay-Cooper, and Deuel, Thorne

1937. Rediscovering Illinois. University of Chicago Press.

Crane, H. R., and Griffin, James B.

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1959. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates IV. American Journal of
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1960. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates V. American Journal of Sci-
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Cunningham, Wilbur M.

1948. A study of the Glacial Kame culture. University of Michigan, Occa-
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Dragoo, Don W.

1951. Archaeological survey of Shelby County, Indiana. The Indiana His-
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Falge, Louis

1915. Indian remains in Manitowoc County. The Wisconsin Archeologist,
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274 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 36

Faulkner, Charles H.

1960. The Red Ocher culture: An early burial complex in northern Indiana.
The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 35-49.

In press. The significance of some red ocher-like artifacts from Lake County,
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Fox, George R.

1916. Outagamie County antiquities. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 15,
no. 1, pp. 1-21.

Gerend, Alphonse

1920. Sheboygan County. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 121-
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Greenman, Emerson F.

1953. Review of Sixty years of Ontario archaeology, by K. E. Kidd, and The
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1954. University of Michigan explorations. Michigan Archaeological Society
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Hills, Leslie W.

1898. Correspondence section. The American Archaeologist, vol. 2, part 3,
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Morse, Dan F.

1959. Preliminary report on a Red Ocher mound at the Morse site, Fulton
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Niehoff, Arthur

1959. Beads from a Red Ocher burial in Ozaukee County. The Wisconsin
Archaeologist, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 25-28.

Papworth, Mark

1958. Artifacts from the Kimmel site, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Michigan
Archaeologist, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 51-56.

Quimby, George I.

1957. An Old Copper site? at Port Washington. The Wisconsin Archeologist,
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1958. Late Archaic culture and the Algoma beach in the Lake Michigan Basin.
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1960a. Burial yields clews to Red Ocher culture. Chicago Natural History
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1960b. Indian life in the upper Great Lakes, 11,000 B.C. to A.D. 1800. Univer-
sity of Chicago Press.

RlTZENTHALER, ROBERT

1957. Reigh site report. Number 3. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 33,
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RlTZENTHALER, ROBERT, and NlEHOFF, ARTHUR

1958. A Red Ocher burial in Ozaukee County. The Wisconsin Archeologist,
vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 115-120.

RITZENTHALER AND QUIMBY: RED OCHER CULTURE 275

Shumacher, J. P.

1918. Indian remains in Door County. The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 16,
no. 4, pp. 125-145.

Smith, Harlan I.

1901. The Saginaw Valley collection. American Museum of Natural History,
Supplement to American Museum Journal, vol. 1, no. 12, pp. 1-24.

Townsend, Earl C, Jr.

1959. Birdstones of the North American Indian. Indianapolis, Indiana.

Wray, Donald E.

1937. A Red Ocher mound in Fulton County. Transactions of the Illinois
Academy of Science, vol. 30, part 2, p. 82.

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